星期二, 1月 28, 2014

創世記創造敘述的近東背景(四)

接著過去三篇文章(),略述《近東開闢史詩》之內容,讓我們了解創世記的近東背景。上一章故事發展到馬獨克(Marduk)打敗了徹墨(Tiamat),成為群神之首,開始創立世界:

IV.137彼乃剖裂之若蚌蠣之甲,分為兩半,
IV.138其一立之以為蒼穹,
IV.139設閘遣戍卒堅守自固,
IV.140復令毋許其因水而潛逃。
IV.141彼遂跨越諸天而俯瞰餘域。
IV.142當至尊丈量潝虛所擁土地之廣袤時,

IV.137 He split her into two like a dried fish:
IV.138 One half of her he set up and stretched out as the heavens.
IV.139 He stretched the skin and appointed a watch
IV.140 With the instruction not to let her waters escape.
IV.141 He crossed over the heavens, surveyed the celestial parts,
IV.142 And adjusted them to match the Apsu, Nudimmud’s abode.

馬獨克(Marduk)把徹墨(Tiamat)分開,好像將曬乾了的魚(dried fish或饒譯蚌蠣)分成兩半,一上一下,上半成為穹蒼,下半做為地,在地上立眾神所居之廟宇。接著,他又在天上設立眾星,太陽和月亮,也是眾天神之位:

V.1彼為巨神,置其躔次兮。
V.2列宿以陳,羅星象兮。
V.3歷離其閾,以成歲兮。
V.4依十二月,為三天兮。
V.5狀以天形,年日以敍。
V.6建之以泥畢烏(太歲)(Neberu ),以正晷度;
V.7毋或違之,或傾側之。
V.8分其畛域,恩立、閼亞。
V.9啟其天門,別以兩極;
V.10探扃為固,在其左右。
V.11於其臍中,以立天極。
V.12生月之輝,夜以寄焉。

V.1 He fashioned heavenly stations for the great gods,
V.2 And set up constellations, the patterns of the stars.
V.3 He appointed the year, marked off divisions,
V.4 And set up three stars each for the twelve months.
V.5 After he had organized the year,
V.6 He established the heavenly station of Neberu  to fix the stars’ intervals.
V.7 That none should transgress or be slothful
V.8 He fixed the heavenly stations of Enlil and Ea with it.
V.9 Gates he opened on both sides.
V.10 And put strong bolts at the left and the right.
V.11 He placed the heights (of heaven) in her (Tiamat’s) belly,
V.12 He created Nannar, entrusting to him the night.

太陽、月亮和星宿的目的,是維持日月年,使月曆和時節循環不息。然後,又用徹墨(Tiamat)的屍骸作成各個水泉,又用她雙眼做出兩大河「幼發拉底河」(Euphrates) 和「底格里斯河」(Tigris),又使她雙乳成為高山。

V.55自其雙眼,決為歐霏域(Euphrates)與泰姬維(Tigris)兩河。
V.57就其兩乳,以起崇山。

V.55 From her two eyes he let the Euphrates and Tigris flow,
V.57 He heaped up the distant [mountains] on her beasts,

馬獨克(Marduk)又俘虜聯同徹墨(Tiamat)一同叛亂之神明,使他們成為奴隸,作各種的苦工,如挖水道和耕種,奉養得勝神靈的需要。但是,因為神明奴役甚苦,他們便哀求馬獨克(Marduk)。

創造人類
至尊之主便想出妙計,造出人類來為群神解去勞役之痛,使眾神得以安息:

VI.5「余將搏其血而構其骨兮,
VI.6余將置此僕豎而名之日人。
VI.7余誓將造此野蠻人,
VI.8俾其從容而服役于諸神。

VI.5 “I will bring together blood and form bone, 
VI.6 I will bring into being Lullu, whose name shall be ‘man’,
VI.7 I will create Lullu-man
VI.8 On whom the toil of the gods will be laid that they may rest.

創造人類的方法,是將叛徒之首金固拉出來,把他處決,用他的血做出人來。馬獨克(Marduk)說:

VI.25「當交出其渠魁,
VI.26予將使彼負罪,汝等可安然無事。」

VI.25 Let him who instigated warfare be given up
VI.26 That I may lay his punishment on him; but you sit and rest.”

眾神回答說:
VI.29「是由金固倡首,
VI.30而使徹墨叛而參與大戰。」
VI.31彼等乃拘繫之,執之關亞之前。
VI.32加之以罪而敵其血焉。
VI.33以其餘瀝,塑造人類。
VI.34(閼亞)即使之服役,遂遣去諸神。

VI.29 “Qingu is the one who instigated warfare,
VI.30 Who made Tiamat rebel and set battle in motion.”
VI.31 They bound him, holding him before Ea,
VI.32 They inflicted the penalty on him and severed his blood-vessels.
VI.33 From his blood he (Ea) created mankind,
VI.34 On whom he imposed the service of the gods, and set the gods free.


遊行的獅子(Striding Lion)釉磚(glazed brick)
出土自巴比倫遊行大道(Processional Way)牆壁
新巴比倫時期,尼布甲尼撒二世
(公元前604-562年)
芝加哥近東博物館

之後,馬獨克(Marduk)分配各群神之位份,三百在天,三百在地,一共六百諸神(VI.41-44)。群神為報馬獨克(Marduk)之恩,便為他建立巴比倫和城中的大廟(Esagila):

VI.55馬獨克聞言,
VI.56欣容如日之升,光芒煥發,日:
VI.57「可建巴比侖,如君等所請。
VI.58施以磚石,并名之日『聖殿』。」

VI.55 When Marduk heard this,
VI.56 He beamed as brightly as the light of day,
VI.57 “Build Babylon, the task you have sought.
VI.58 Let bricks for it be moulded, and raise the shrine!”

此後,群神在天庭雲集,冠以馬獨克(Marduk)五十嘉名(VI.123-VII.144),並頌揚馬獨克,最後史詩訓勉各人熟記他的五十神名:

VII.143以此五十嘉名,諸神
VII.144遂讚頌之:厥名為五十,所以建其至尊之地位也。
VII.145汝其識之,俾汝有司,共訓誨之。
VII.146聖與智者,共討論之。
VII.147為父者誦之,以詔其子。
VII.148牧人虞人(畜牧者),共提其耳。
VII.149以娛其神,恩立、馬獨克。
VII.150俾饒益其地,既富且庶。
VII.151定其法則,厥命不渝。

VII.143 With the word “Fifty” the great gods
VII.144 Called his fifty names and assigned him an outstanding position.
VII.145 They should be remembered; a leading figure should expound them,
VII.146 The wise and learned should confer about them,
VII.147 A father should repeat them and teach them to his son,
VII.148 One should explain them to shepherd and herdsman.
VII.149 If one is not negligent to Marduk, the Enlil of the gods,
VII.150 May one’s land flourish, and oneself prosper,
VII.151 (For) his word is reliable, his command unchanged.

小結
說回第一篇文章開首時的目的,我說要掌握創世記創世敘述的主旨,讀者要先了解近東的背景。除了希伯來文聖經有創世敘述(creation account)之外,許多其他近東的文獻,都有其對創世和宇宙的理解。

《近東開闢史詩》(Enuma Elish)是古近東一首家喻戶曉的史詩,我用了四篇短文簡述《近東開闢史詩》,雖然感到有點沉悶,但是許多時我們只能從創世記的譯經書中聽聞史詩內容的一點點,卻沒有渠道去明白史詩大體的內容和脈絡。所以,我認為由頭到尾去簡述這近東神話是有必要的,事實上,《近東開闢史詩》表達著古近東的「典型宇宙觀」(standard cosmology),包含了古近東宇宙論的主要原素[1]。理解了它的內容,必能幫助我們解釋創世記的敘述,希伯來聖經的宇宙觀。

在此又作一小結語,我們許多時稱《近東開闢史詩》為「創世史詩」(Epic of Creation)其實是有點誤導成份的,因為史詩的主題是環繞著巴比倫主神馬獨克(Marduk),要為馬獨克作辯護,說明他為何是群神之中的至高者,再而為巴比倫作政治的辯護,說明為什麼巴比倫擁有統治其他城市之權,其他內容只屬次要。

所以,按內容來說,史詩實質上是「馬獨克之頌詩」(The Exaltation of Marduk) [2]。馬獨克之所以創造世界,是因為要處置敗仗徹墨的殘骸而已,可說創立世界只是事後的東西(after thought),創造人類也更是如此。這與創世記一章創世的敘述有何等大的對比。

有了近東創世敘述作背景,下一步我們要作的,就是詮釋創世記一二章時,以近東的神話作比對來詮釋經文,方能更明白經文的神學意思。

以後筆者會嘗試以近東創世神話為背景,去閱讀創世記一章等經文,讀者不訪重溫之前幾篇文章有關《近東開會史詩》的內容()

備註:
[1] Richard J. Clifford. 1994. Creation Accounts in the Ancient Near East and in the Bible. Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association of America, p. 82.

[2] Benjamin Foster, “Epic of Creation (1.111) (Enuma Elish),” in William W. Hallo and K. Lawson Younger, The Context of Scripture, Volume One: Canonical Compositions from the Biblical World (Leiden;  New York: Brill, 1997–), 391.

創世記創造敘述的近東背景(三)

上一回簡略《近東開闢史詩》的內容,情節停在馬獨克(Marduk)向水神徹墨(Tiamat)宣戰,神話繼續敘述兩神單打獨鬥,情節更為精彩:

IV.87徹墨聞之,

IV.88頓失理智,舉止若狂,
IV.89勃然大怒,咆吼不已。
IV.90又搖震雙足以抵地,
IV.91復鼓其舌而作咒,
IV.92而陣上諸神,亦皆磨戈植矛,(準備搏鬥。)
IV.93徹墨繼而與聰明神武之馬獨克,
IV.94單獨比鬥,酣戰不休。
IV.95至尊乃布網以掩徹墨,
IV.96魔風則尾隨之,伺機揚擊其面;

IV.87 When Tiamat heard this

IV.88 She went insane and lost her reason.
IV.89 Tiamat cried aloud and fiercely,
IV.90 All her lower members trembled beneath her.
IV.91 She was reciting an incantation, kept reciting her spell,
IV.92 While the battle-gods were sharpening their weapons of war.
IV.93 Tiamat and Marduk, the sage of the gods, came together,
IV.94 Joining in strife, drawing near to battle
IV.95 Bel spread out his net and enmeshed her;
IV.96 He let loose the Evil Wind, the rear guard, in her face.


近東神明撃殺怪獸
出自亞述王Ashur-nasir-pal皇宮浮雕
公元前885-860年
有學者認為是馬獨克殺戮徹墨的描繪[1]

緊張刺激的描述,一方面要說明徹墨(Tiamat)的勢力,另一方面就是要強調馬獨克(Marduk)的威力和最後的勝利:


IV.97當徹墨張口意欲吞噬(馬獨克)之際,

IV.98彼乃鼓策魔風猛進,使其雙唇難閉,
IV.99眾風群起而吹襲其腹,
IV.100使其軀體膨脹而其口闊張,
IV.101彼即以箭射其腹,
IV.102洞穿五內,並裂其心。
IV.103彼既一戰而勝之,遂了結(徹墨)之生命。
IV.104並暴其屍體,(以為京觀)而踐踏之。

IV.97 Tiamat opened her mouth to swallow it,

IV.98 She let the Evil Wind in so that she could not close her lips.
IV.99 The fierce winds weighed down her belly,
IV.100 Her inwards were distended and she opened her mouth wide.
IV.101 He let fly an narrow and pierced her belly,
IV.102 He tore open her entrails and slit her inwards,
IV.103 He bound her and extinguished her life,
IV.104 He threw down her corpse and stood on it.

馬獨克(Marduk)完全打敗徹墨(Tiamat)之後,便生擒潰不成軍的叛逆神靈,又奪去罪魁金固的「天命之銘」(“Tablet of Destinies”) [IV.121],掌握宇宙和諸神的控制權。隨後,又轉回徹墨(Tiamat)的屍首,用她創造萬有:


IV.128轉而顧其為彼所繫之徹墨。

IV.129於是,至尊遂踐踏徹墨之足,
IV.130以其執法嚴厲之權杖,敲碎其頭顱焉。
IV.131彼既已切斷其動脈之血矣,
IV.132北風乃吹拂之於冥漠之地。
IV.133其父等覩此(勝利),喜極而歡呼;
IV.134彼輩爭擕禮品以致賀之。
IV.135惟至尊止步而視(徹墨之)殘骸
IV.136思欲分割其體而有所創造焉。

IV.128 And returned to Tiamat, whom he had bound.

IV.129 Bel placed his feet on the lower parts of Tiamat
IV.130 And with his merciless club smashed her skull.
IV.131 He severed her arteries
IV.132 And let the North Wind bear up (her blood) to give the news.
IV.133 His fathers saw it and were glad and exulted;
IV.134 They brought gifts and presents to him.
IV.135 Bel rested, surveying the corpse,
IV.136 In order to divide the lump by a clever scheme.

我們讀到這裡,需要重溫一下史詩敘述的脈絡,如果記得史詩的開首,徹墨(Tiamat)是水和混沌之神靈,馬獨克(Marduk)打敗徹墨(Tiamat)之後,便開始創立世界,情節要到下一篇短文才繼續,以下暫作另一小結。


神靈爭霸

《近東開闢史詩》刻在七塊泥版之上,全詩有1096行(根據Lambert編譯的版本為準),由神話故事一開始,到馬獨克的出現和最後打敗徹墨(I.1-IV.136),共佔598行,即全史詩篇幅之55%。如果減去史詩結尾稱頌馬獨克的五十大名(VI.123-VII.164),共207行,全詩只有889行,敘述馬獨克大戰徹墨的篇幅,佔神話篇幅67%。

這種的運算特別重要,因為我們可以看到史詩花最多的心血,正在於神靈之間的爭霸(theomachy),即使史詩之後會交代得勝者創立世界的經過,也只是後加的註腳。神靈爭霸是近東創造敘述和宇宙論的固有特色[2],神明殺敗起初混沌的大水,稱霸群神後便創立宇宙,宇宙創立的經過,是由混沌到宇宙。


從這方面考慮,創世記創世敘述的特色就更顯而易見,創世記一章的敘述,沒有近東神話精彩的神靈爭霸戰,沒有什麼星空大戰,卻以異常簡樸的敘述,成為以色列的「信仰文獻」(document of faith [3]),宣告著神是超越萬有之主。


備註:

[1] 儘管有些人仍然認為,這圖象描繪馬獨克和徹墨之間之戰鬥。但是,這兩塊石板是在尼姆魯德(Nimrud; 聖經中的迦拉 [Calab])戰神Ninurta寺廟hi9入口處被發現。圖象上亦刻有向Ninurta祈禱文。所以我們可以肯定,追殺怪物是神是Ninurta,不是馬獨克。 此外,左面怪物顯然是男性,也是地和空中之物,也就是說,牠不可能是女性和水神徹墨。Heidel, Alexander. 1951. The Babylonian Genesis, 2nd edition. Chicago: University of Chicago, p. 86-87.
[2] Nahum M. Sarna, Genesis, The JPS Torah Commentary (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989), 2–3.
[3] Ibid.

星期三, 1月 22, 2014

創世記創世敘述的近東背景(二)

上一篇文章討論聖經創世敘述的近東背景,我說在這方面最常引用的文獻就是《近東開闢史詩》(Enuma Elish),上一回開始簡略史詩內容,講到閼亞(Ea)殺死潝虛(Apsu),為眾神解困,然後生出巴比倫神馬獨克,他是「眾神中最崇高者」(“superior in comparison with the gods”; I.99)。

故事繼續發展,不久之後,徹墨(Tiamat)因夫被殺,晝夜不得安息,有一批神明在金固(Kingu)的帶領之下 ,煽動徹墨(Tiamat)報仇,她生出十一類怪獸和惡魔,向殺夫的眾神大開殺戒,又立金固(Kingu)為伴侶,統領大軍,並賜他“天命之銘”,能掌控宇宙群神:


I.141 彼遂分布毒虺、蛟龍與獅身人、

I.142 巨獅、瘋犬、蝎子人、
I.143 強有力之獅妖、飛龍、半人馬恠物,
I.144 攜其絕不留情之武器,人陣不懼,
I.145 其施令嚴,故彼等之服從性亦高。
I.146 挈同此十一類邁進,

I.141 She created the Hydra, the Dragon, the Hairy Hero,

I.142 The Great Demon, the Savage Dog, and the Scorpion-man,
I.143 Fierce demons, the Fish-man, and the Might Bull,
I.144 Carriers of merciless weapons, fearless in the face of battle.
I.145 Her commands were tremendous, not to be resisted.
I.146 Altogether she made eleven of that kind.


馬獨克(Marduk)畫像
出自公元前九世紀巴比倫[1]

敵軍快要殺到之前,開頭殺死潝虛(Apsu)為眾神解圍的英雄閼亞(Ea)聞訊,卻慌張起來,告訴祖父安撒(Anshar),安撒(Anshar)首先派出閼亞(Ea)迎敵,但徹墨(Tiamat)太強,閼亞(Ea)不戰而敗。安撒(Anshar)再派出兒子(Anu),與徹墨(Tiamat)講和,但又再失敗,因為邪惡的徹墨(Tiamat)必須要以武力戰勝,不然,眾神必被滅絕。徹墨(Tiamat)勢如破竹,眾神群龍無首,似乎必死無疑。安撒(Anshar)無法可施:


II.119 安撒於是乎俯首無言,

II.120 其髮下垂,搖曳其首,以及閼亞。
II.121 所有居諸天之亞拏娜奇,雲集於此,
II.122 咸緘其口,默坐無聲。
II.123 「果無一神可赴戰陣
II.124 以討徹墨而讓其逃匿乎?」

II.119 Anshar lapsed into silence, staring at the ground,

II.120 Nodding to Ea, shaking his head.
II.121 The Igigi and allt he Anunnaki had assembled,
II.122 They sat in tight-lipped silence.
II.123 No god would go to face .. [..]
II.124 Would go out against Tiamat …. [..]

就在千鈞一髮之際,安撒(Anshar)想起威武的馬獨克(Marduk)是群神的救星,因為他的「威力強大…利於戰陣」(II.127-128)。馬獨克(Marduk)到了天庭,對安撒(Anshar)說:


II.139「安撒!大啟汝口,毋再緘默,

II.140余將往矣,以遂汝心中之所冀求也。

II.143豈有壯士而敢鏖戰與爾為敵者哉?
II.144然僅此徹墨一婦人而已耳,乃能執戈而奔馳向汝乎!?
II.145噫嘻!余父,造物主也,宜乎歡喜愉悅。
II.146徹墨之項,終當為汝所踐踏矣!

II.139 “My father, do not hold your peace, but speak forth, 

II.140 I will go and fulfill your desires!

II.143 Which man has drawn up his battle array against you?
II.144 And will Tiamat, who is a woman, attack you with (her) weapons?
II.145 [My father], begetter, rejoice and be glad,
II.146 Soon you will tread on the neck of Tiamat!

不過,馬獨克(Marduk)卻有一要求,若出戰滅絕徹墨(Tiamat)之後,他要求群神召開大會,立他為諸神之首,為統領萬有者。安撒(Anshar)聽後,便派使者去告訴其他大神,馬獨克(Marduk)將為群神解危:


III.55馬獨克,其最聰慧者,亦汝之子也,乃進焉,

III.56蓋其心已促使彼安排一切以對付徹墨。
III.57彼啟其口而告余曰:
III.58『若余誠能為汝之復仇者,
III.59余將制服徹墨以救汝等性命;
III.60且召開大會,以高揭吾命運之大纛。
III.61余當加人欲舒健拿,汝試莞爾坐下,
III.62讓余之昌言,代汝決定此一命運。
III.63不可改易而施行之吾之事功,
III.64此不能徹回、不可更動者是即余之訓令。』

III.55 Marduk, the sage of the gods, your son, has come forward, 

III.56 He has determined to meet Tiamat.
III.57  He has spoken to me and said,
III.58 ‘If I should become your avenger,
III.59  If I should bind Tiamat and preserve you,
III.60 Convene an assembly, and proclaim for me an exalted destiny.
III.61 Sit, all of you, in Upsu’kkinakku with gladness.
III.62 And let me, with my utterance, decree destinies instead of you.
III.63 Whatever I instigate must not be changed.
III.64 Nor may my command be nullified or altered.’

群神對馬獨克(Marduk)的戰鬥力毫無疑惑,先前眾神面對徹墨(Tiamat)的威脅,陣腳大亂,驚慌失措,如今有馬獨克(Marduk)解困,立刻設宴慶賀:


III.129-30所有諸大神之命運,已有定數矣;

III.131眾皆趨往安撒之前,集於欲舒健拿內,
III.132相互擁吻,
III.133會談就宴,
III.134歡愉進餐,注酒薦酌,
III.135沾濡舉觴,陶然而醉。
III.136旨酒既酣,狂飲無已,
III.137興致飛越而體倦不能興矣,
III.138惟為彼等之復仇者馬獨克頒布其政令焉。

III.129 All the great gods who decree destinies

III.130 Gathered as they went,
III.131 They entered the presence of Anshar and became filled with [joy],
III.132 They kissed one another as they . [..] in the assembly.
III.133 They conferred as they [sat] at table,
III.134 They ate grain, they drank ale.
III.135 They stuffed their bellies with sweet cake,
III.136 As they drank beer and felt good,
III.137 They became quite carefree, their mood was merry,
III.138 And they decreed the destiny for Marduk, their avenger.

眾神靈立馬獨克(Marduk)為帝,歡喜地同聲向他吶喊:「馬獨克,真乃王者也!…去!去!殄徹墨之命!俾眾風得攫其(徹墨)血,置於不可知之地。」(“Marduk is king …Go, cut off the life of Tiamat, Let the winds bear her blood away as glad tidings!”) (IV.28-32).


接著史詩的描述越來越精彩,為了迎戰徹墨(Tiamat),馬獨克(Marduk)現在準備各種武器:


IV.35彼爰造一弓,以為武器,

IV.36系之於前,張弦以固之。
IV.37彼高舉權杖,以右手緊握之。
IV.38弓與矢橐懸諸其側,
IV.39布閃電於其前,
IV.40激以火焰,充乎其身。
IV.41繼而張一巨網,將羅徹墨於其內,
IV.42復設四風圍繞之,務使其無可遁逃:
IV.43 (四風也者,)南風、北風、東風、西風(是也)。

IV.35 He fashioned a bow and made it his weapon,

IV.36 He set an arrow in place, put the bow string to it,
IV.37 He took up his club and held it in his right hand,
IV.38 His bow and quiver he hung at his side.
IV.39 He placed lightning before him,
IV.40 And filled his body with tongues of flame.
IV.41 He made a net to enmesh the entrails of Tiamat,
IV.42 And stationed the four winds that no part of her escape.
IV.43 The South Wind, the North Wind, the East Wind, the West Wind,

他又發動各種強風,包括:迴旋風、暴風、七方風、旋風與無比之狂風,「為煽動徹墨內部,使其不穩,彼等遂皆起而隨之」。他又「興作洪水滔滔,此尤其有力之武器」(IV.45-49)。馬獨克再套上戰車、穿上戰衣,上戰陣對徹墨(Tiamat)說:


IV.86「起!起!爾我且單獨比鬥,以決一死戰也!」

IV.86 “You and I will take our stand and do battle.”

小結

接著兩神單打獨鬥,情節更為精彩,不過,要等下回分解。在此作一小結,讀到這裡,史詩仍未交代馬獨克(Marduk)創世之事,但是有如其他近東創世神話一樣,創世主要先戰勝混沌大水之威脅,才能建立世界和自己的聖廟,在內安息掌權。所以,馬獨克(Marduk)必須與徹墨(Tiamat)決一死戰,才能成為群神之首。

神與海怪之宇宙大戰的描述,舊約聖經也可尋找到一些蛛絲馬跡(例如:以賽亞書27:1; 51:9-10; 約伯記9:13-14; 26:12-13; 詩篇74:12-17; 89:9-12; 148:7):


以賽亞書51:9-10

9耶和華的膀臂啊,興起!興起!
以能力為衣穿上,
像古時的年日、上古的世代興起一樣。
從前砍碎拉哈伯(Rahab)、
刺透大魚(dragon)的,不是你嗎?
10使海與深淵的水乾涸、
使海的深處變為贖民經過之路的,
不是你嗎?

詩篇74:12-17

12上帝自古以來為我的王,
   在地上施行拯救。
13你曾用能力將海分開,
   將水中大魚(sea monsters)的頭打破。
14你曾砸碎鱷魚(Leviathan)的頭,
   把牠給曠野的禽獸為食物。
15你曾分裂磐石,水便成了溪河;
   你使長流的江河乾了。
16白晝屬你,黑夜也屬你;
   亮光和日頭是你所預備的。
17地的一切疆界是你所立的;
   夏天和冬天是你所定的。

這些海怪或怪獸,源自近東神話和宗教,可有不同的名稱或譯名:鱷魚(Leviathan)、拉哈伯(Rahab)、蛇(serpents)、大魚(sea monsters, tannin)等。在這些詩歌的描述中,他們是耶和華神的仇敵,作者利用近東古人熟知的神話,說出耶和華戰神才是得勝者,拯救在於耶和華。例如:

  1. 詩篇87:4和以賽亞書30:7中的拉哈伯(Rahab)代表埃及;
  2. 以西結書29:3; 32:2中的法老,就是大魚(sea monster, tannin);
然而,我們不能從這些經文就下結論說,這些海怪就像近東史詩中的海怪一樣,因為在經文當中,海怪是詩體的比喻,代表著與耶和華或神子民作對的國度和權勢而已[2]。事實上,舊約聖經沒有賦予這些怪物什麼神性,也沒有在任何地方暗示過這些怪物的抗衡,可挑戰到神的統治權[3]。

再看創世記的創世敘述,神與海怪大戰等描寫,沒有在創世記一二章出現過,創世記的敘述簡潔,絲毫沒有提過神要抵抗海怪才創造萬有,起初混沌之水,不但沒有近東神話中的神性(如巴比倫神話中的徹墨[Tiamat]),也在神的全權掌握之下。神說要有什麼,就有什麼,事就這樣成了,顯明神有絕對主權。



備註:
[1] Pritchard, James B., ed. 1973. The Ancient Near East, Volume 1: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures. Princeton University Press, Fig. 141.

[2] Alexander Heidel. 1951. Babylonian Genesis: The Story of the Creation. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago, p. 108. Heidel 的書雖然是寫於1951年,但是他對史詩和舊約之間的分析至今仍然有效。


[3] Nahum M. Sarna. 1989. Genesis, The JPS Torah Commentary. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, pp. 2–3.

星期二, 1月 14, 2014

創世記創世敘述的近東背景(一)

當我們開始讀創世記的時候,首先要了解創世記的文化背景,尤其要讀創世記第一至十一章時,古近東的文化背景更為重要。從古近東的文獻和考古發現之中,讓我們能夠認識多一點古代的社會和古人的意識形態。

翻開創世記第一章時,讀到神創造世界的敘述,現代人很容易將現代科學的宇宙觀讀進經文之中,然後便引發許多聖經和科學之間的問題,創世記和現代科學之間有沒有矛盾之處,繼而做成許多無窮盡的爭議。


但是,如果我們首先退後一步,先從古代背景入手,先了解一下古人對創造和世界的觀念,用古代文獻窺探古人的宇宙觀,以他們的角度為進路去解釋創世記時,相信聖經與科學之間的爭議,實在是無必要發生的。


論到創世記對創世的敘述,相信最多提及的文獻之一便是古巴比倫的創世神話Enuma Elish,這個著名的巴比倫神話故事,又被稱為「創世史詩」(Epic of Creation)。Enuma Elish這兩個阿卡德字(Akkadian),其實是史詩開首的兩個字,英文通常譯作 “When on high” (在天上;中譯「天之高兮」)。史詩約有1100行的詩句,通常寫在七塊泥版上,在歷史之中,出現不同的版本,雖然學者對史詩的寫作時期未有絕對定案,而現有的泥版
沒有一塊屬於公元前1,000年之前,但根據史詩的內證和文字,大部份學者將寫作時期定為「舊巴比倫時期」(Old Babylonian period;約公元前2,000-1,600年)[1]。英文翻譯本已有不少中文翻譯就我所知只得饒宗頤編譯的《近東開闢史詩》[2]。


Enuma Elish 泥版之一
(攝於大英博物館)

《近東開闢史詩》的內容

首先我們要了解一下《近東開闢史詩》的內容,然後才能將之比對創世記的創造敘述。如前所說,《近東開闢史詩》寫在七塊泥版之上,筆者引述史詩文字時,會把中英譯文對照,史詩文字的章節使用兩個數字,第一個是羅馬數目字,代表泥版編號,第二個阿拉伯數字是行號,例如IV.19代表泥版4第19行。整首史詩的內容大致如下:

1. 混沌


史詩開首說「天之高兮」(Enuma Elish),起初只有水,分別是潝虛(Apsu; 男)和徹墨(Tiamat; 女)。前者是清水(sweet water),後者是鹽水(salt water),兩水混和一起,未有區分,只俱備一切存有的原素。


I.1天之高兮,既未有名。

I.2厚地之庫兮,亦未賦之以名。
I.3始有潝虛(Apsu),是其所出。
I.4漠母(Mummu)徹墨(Tiamat),皆由孳生。
I.5大浸一體,混然和同。
I.6無緯蕭以結廬,無沼澤之可覩。

I.1 When the heavens above did not exist,

I.2 And earth beneath had not come into being -
I.3 There was Apsu, the first in order, their begetter,
I.4 And demiurge Tiamat, who gave birth to them all;
I.5 They had mingled their waters together
I.6 Before meadow-land had coalesced and reed-bed was to be found -

之後,兩神生出另一對兄妹,力牧(Lahmu)與力遐牧(Lahamu),他們長大,又生出另一對更偉大的神明,安撒(Anshar)與基撒(Kishar),然後他們再生一子天神安拏(Anu),安拏又生努知穆(Nudimmud),又名恩基(Enki)或閼亞(Ea),其智慧和勇力為眾神之首。


2. 擾亂


眾神出生後,好像小孩出世之後,常喧譁嬉鬧製造噪音,父母永無寧日,不能安息,後來潝虛(Apsu)忍無可忍而起殺機,計謀殲滅眾神,雖然母徹墨(Tiamat)極力反對,但潝虛(Apsu)堅持初衷對母說:


I.37「彼輩誠使余不勝其擾,

I.38晝夜不寧。
I.39余誓將殲之,杜絕其方。
I.40庶幾可以康復,俾余小休。」

I.37 “Their behavior has become displeasing to me

I.38 And I cannot rest in the day-time or sleep at night.
I.39 I will destroy and break up their way of life
I.40 That silence may reign and we may sleep.”

眾神聞風喪膽,但當他們平靜下來,便推舉出大神閼亞(Ea)為救星,他運用法術保護眾神子,發咒語制服潝虛(Apsu),使他昏迷不醒,最後將他殺死,又用他的屍骸建立宏大聖所,稱之為潝虛(Apsu),安息在其中。閼亞(Ea)與妻子萏潔娜(Damkina)生馬獨克(Marduk),天之驕子,無神能匹敵之。


I.93 其完滿之體軀出乎想像之外,

I.94 奧乎莫可窺測,淵乎難以揣度;
I.95 既具四眼,且具四耳,
I.96 其唇動則有火噴出。
I.97 其聽官巨大各有其四,
I.98 眼之數亦如之,燭照萬物。
I.99 彼為眾神中最崇高者,魁梧無匹,
I.100 肢體龐大,極度高峻。

I.93 His members were incomprehensibly wonderful,

I.94 Incapable of being grasped with the mind, hard even to look on.
I.95 Four were his eyes, four his ears,
I.96 Flame shot forth as he moved his lips.
I.97 His four ears grew large,
I.98 And his eyes likewise took in everything.
I.99 His figure was lofty and superior in comparison with the gods,
I.100 His limbs were long, his nature was superior:

這位馬獨克就是巴比倫的大神,故事繼續發展下去,便會交待馬獨克(Marduk)怎樣成為群神之首,但因為故事太長,在此暫停,等下一篇文章再討論。


小結 不過,這裡順帶一提,馬獨克亦出現於舊約耶利米書50:2:「你們要在萬國中傳揚報告,豎立大旗,要報告,不可隱瞞,說:巴比倫被攻取,彼勒(Bel,馬獨克的別號)蒙羞,米羅達(Merodach/Marduk,即馬獨克)驚惶.巴比倫的神像都蒙羞、他的偶像都驚惶。」


耶利米在此預言,神的子民已被擄到巴比倫,但巴比倫王國將會倒台,這個預言結果在巴比倫的末代王帝那波尼德(Nabonidus; 主前556-539年)執政時,那波尼德對馬獨克不忠,不拜馬獨克,甚至在新春巡行時,也將馬獨克留在廟宇,到了主前539年,波斯帝國佔領巴比倫,馬獨克和巴比倫的地位便被取替。先知的意思是,耶和華的權威凌駕於巴比倫和馬獨克之上,連馬獨克的命運也由耶和華所掌控。


繼續下一篇文章:創世記創世敘述的近東背景(二)

備註:
[1] E. A. Speiser, "Akkadian Myths and Epics" in ANET 60.

[2] 筆者使用的英譯文出自 Lambert, W. G. 2013. Babylonian Creation Myths. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, pp. 50-134. 其他英譯文見:COS 1.111 (COS = Hallo, W.W., Younger, K.L., 1997–. The Context of Scripture, Volume I: Canonical Compositions from the Biblical World. Leiden;  New York: Brill). ANET 60-72, 501-503. (ANET = Pritchard, J.B. ed., 1969. Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, 3rd ed. with Supplement. Princeton: Princeton University Press). Foster, Benjamin R. 2005. Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature, 3rd edition. University Press of Maryland, pp. 436-486; Heidel, Alexander. 1951. The Babylonian Genesis, 2nd edition. Chicago: University of Chicago; Stephanie Dalley. 1998. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press, pp. 228-277. 中譯:饒宗頤編譯,《近東開闢史詩》,台灣,台北:新文豐出版公司,1991。

星期一, 1月 13, 2014

迦南地:氣候和農耕循環

幾個月前,我去主講聖經考古和聖地的講座,當解釋迦南地的氣候和農耕循環時,一向都使用自己以前預備的圖表,以便解釋。

講座之後,其中一位朋友前來問道:「為什麼你的圖表循環的月份是逆時針,不是順時針較容易看嗎?逆時針可有什麼特別意義?」那時,我說沒有什麼特別意思,只是從開始就是逆時針,後來,我才明白她的意思,順時針較容易看嘛,她是對的!所以,將原本的圖表改成順時針了,如你會使用這圖表的話,順時針的確是比較方便的。