基亞法陶片的發現 基亞法城寨正是把守著以拉谷的要塞。基亞法最重要的發現之一,就是一塊古文的陶片(ostracon) [1]。2008年7月8日的上午10時,一位17歲的青年義工Oded Yair在Area B,西城門北面的城房之一發掘時,將這塊大陶片,連同其他發現的陶碎片,都放在黑膠桶之內,當時還未有人知道,陶片上在墨水寫的古文,考古學家將原本發掘的地點,標籤為Area B, Building II, Room B, Locus B161, Basket B342。
5 - 基亞法陶片可見證著文士的存在。讀寫能力literacy是國家存在的其中一個指標。因為在古近東的世界裡,只有文士、宗教專職人士(如祭司等)、國家官員、富商和貴族才是閱讀和書寫的能力。讀寫能力在社會和宗教上都是被受尊敬的象徵(Toorn 2007: 105)。尤其在讀寫能力低的古代社會,文士必在王室當中享有尊職,甚至在宗教上成為一國屬靈先賢(如摩西)的繼承人。簡言之,文士擁有一國象徵性資本的鑰匙 "the scribes held the key to the symbolic capital of the nation" (Toorn 2007: 106)
6 - 更值得留意的,就是基亞法陶片被發現的地方,是在西城門的房間之內。近東的城門,一向都是城鎮的公共地方。城門有許多功用:防守、法律和司法、宗教、行政和商業買賣、社會和公共用途,甚至意識形態(ideological)的代表性。明顯地,基亞法的城門也有同樣的用途。Van der Toorn 指出,城門是寫讀活動的中心,尤其是國家的律法和命令,都會在國家領土的城門等公共地方,被生產和抄錄下來的,並且公告大眾。將文字公開的張貼,對一般「文盲」大眾,起了代表性的意義。再者,在口述的文化oral culture當中,文本所寫的內容,依賴專業文士的公開誦讀。所以,書寫出來的文字通常不是為了個人閱讀的用途,寫出來是為了公讀的。(Toorn 2009: 12-13) ******備註:
Bearman, G. and Christens-Barry, W.A. 2009a. Imaging the Ostracon. In Garfinkel, Y. and Ganor, S. 2009. Khirbet Qeiyafa Vol. 1. Excavation Report 2007-2008, pp. 261-270. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.
Bearman, G. and Christens-Barry, W.A. 2009b. Spectral Imaging of Ostraca. PalArch’s Journal of Archaeology of Egypt/Egyptology 6(7) (2009), 1-20.
Sanders, Seth. 2009. The Invention of Hebrew. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Galil, Gershon. 2009. The Hebrew Inscription from Khirbet Qeiyafa/Neta'im: Script, Language, Literature and History. Ugarit-Forschungen 41: 193-242.
Puech, Emile. 2010. "Ostracon de Khirbet Qeyafa et les debuts de la royaute en Israel." Revue Biblique 117: 162-184.
Rollston, Christopher. 2010a. Writing and Literacy in the World of Ancient Israel: Epigraphic Evidence from the Iron Age. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature.
Rollston, Christopher. 2010b. Radio interview with Christopher Rollston by Gordon Govier from Radioscribe.com, Episode #1211, dated 2010-01-24. Available at: http://tbts.info/episodes.
Rollston, Christopher. 2010c. Reflections on the Qeiyafa Ostracon. Available at: http://www.rollstonepigraphy.com/?p=56.
Toorn, Karel Van Der. 2007. Scribal Culture and the Making of the Hebrew Bible. Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England: Harvard University Press.
Millard, A R. (Alan Ralph). “The Ostracon from the Days of David Found at Khirbet Qeiyafa.” Tyndale Bulletin 62, no. 1 (2011): 1–13.
Misgav, H., Garfinkel, Y. and Ganor, S. 2009. The Ostracon. In Garfinkel, Y. and Ganor, S. 2009. Khirbet Qeiyafa Vol. 1. Excavation Report 2007-2008, pp. 243-257. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.
N. T. Wright說得對:"It should be noted that being 'taken' in this context means being taken in judgment. There is no hint, here, of a 'rapture', a sudden 'supernatural' event which would remove individual from terra firma" (Wright 1996: 366)。
參考書目:
Blomberg, Craig. 2001. Matthew. New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman.
France, R. T. 2007. The Gospel of Matthew. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
Wright, N. T. Jesus and the Victory of God. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1996.
Stern, Ephraim. 2007. En-Gedi Excavations I Final Report (1961–1965). Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University.
Farmer, W. 1956. The Geography of Ezekiel’s River of Life. Biblical Archaeologist 19: 17–22.
Herion, Gary A. En-Eglaim. In Anchor Yale Bible Dictionary. Edited by David Noel Freedman. New York: Doubleday, 1996. 2: 501.
Ussishkin, David. The "Ghassulian" Temple in Ein Gedi and the Origin of the Hoard from Nahal Mishmar. The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 34, No. 1 (Feb., 1971), pp. 23-39
遺址鑑定Site Identification: 至於基亞法是不是聖經中其中一個城鎮,這個問題仍在討論之中,現在有不同的見解。基亞法的發掘者Garfinkel 認為它是「沙拉音」Shaaraim (書15:36;撒上17:52;代上4:31;見D. Adams and A. Rainey),因為「沙拉音」原文的意思,可指「兩個城門」,而基亞法確實有兩個城門,但是這個只按字根的進路,說服力不大。
基亞法2007-2008年度的發掘報告:Garfinkel, Yosef and Saar Ganor. 2009. Khirbet Qeiyafa Vol. 1: Excavation Report 2007-2008. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.
註腳: [1] 「支派」和「國家」之關係的研究,在過去的10多年,已有很大的進展。例如,在米索不達米亞的古國瑪利(Mari)出土的泥版,經學者翻譯和研究之後,漸漸讓我們明白,在近東的文化之中,「支派」和「國家」確是共存的社會結構,事實上,在瑪利文獻之中,以游牧作業的「支派」是「國家」的政治參與者,支派的元首對定都於瑪利的君王,不單常有書信來往,甚至直接影響著國家政策;而君王同時是某支派的成員。瑪利文獻,見:Heimpel, Wolfgang. 2003. Letters to the King of Mari: A New Translation, With Historical Introduction, Notes, and Commentary (Mesopotamian Civilizations, 12). Eisenbrauns.